Culture in Everyday Life Essay

I experienced culture shock about 7 years ago, when I became friends with a Philippine woman. Her name is Christeen Humangnan; she was born and raised in the Philippines. It wasn’t until Christeen was 14 years old, that she moved to the United States. She would tell me how spoiled we are as Americans. She lived in the Philippines without electricity, a television, and rarely had money for new shoes. Although those customs are different from ours in the United States, there is one culture she practices that stood out. It is called pagmamano. Pagmamano is a Filipino culture that has survived the times and foreign influences. This is the practice of respect by asking for an elder’s hand and touches one’s forehead while bowing. One usually asks by saying â€Å"Mano po.† Mano po translates to â€Å"may I have your hand please.† In return, the elder blesses the person. In the Filipino culture the elderly, refer to parents and grandparents, cousins, or close family friends. It is usually done when one visits a family, when meeting these people outside of the homes or after a religious activity. It is also common to bring children to their godparents during Christmas time to pay respect with this custom. I found this custom in the Filipino culture to be shocking to me because, I have never seen it done before. I also see so many children act disrespectfully to their elders in this country, so it was a blessing in my eyes to see the elderly being respected. Now that I have learned of pagmamano, I participate, and have taught my own children the meaning of this culture. We do not use it in our own culture, but whenever we visit my friend Christeen and her family, we show enough respect to her and her family by participating in pagmamano. I would say that the value assumption was slightly an issue when I first  learned of this practice. I thought to myself, this is not the Philippines, we don’t do that here. After seeing the custom in person and how respectful the adolescents are to their elders, I realized I was wrong. I was happy to learn of it and see the children learning respect. You don’t see many American children show this type of respect. Since cultural relativism supports the theory that there is no absolute right and wrong. Instead, the morals, standards and behaviors that vary among cultures must be taken into consideration. I was wrong to assume that pagmamano should be practiced in the Philippines. I think it is a great way to show respect. At first I thought to myself, that’s weird! Then, I realized that we do â€Å"weird† things too. She considers some of the things we do as â€Å"weird,† when we considered it normal. We just have to accept the fact that we all live together in this country that participates and allows different cultures. I am thankful that I learned of the pagmamano culture, and I respect it.

Napoleon and Snowball Essay

Napoleon and Snowball are characters who represent Stalin and Trotsky. Explore the conflict between these two characters presented by Orwell in Animal Farm ‘Animal Farm’ is an allegory which presents George Orwell’s views on communism in the form of an anthropomorphic fable. The main characters are Snowball and Napoleon, who represent Trotsky and Stalin, are two opposing characters whose conflict is presented in a number of linguistic and structural ways. An example of this are the different ideas of ‘Animalism’ which Snowball and Napoleon have. Snowball strives for equality whilst Napoleon becomes a power-driven dictator. One of the first differences that emerge between Snowball and Napoleon are their physical differences described at the start of Chapter 2 Napoleon is described as a ‘large, rather fierce-looking’ pig which foreshadows his future violent ways of dictatorship , as well as showing that Napoleon takes more than his fair sha re. On the other hand, Snowball seems to be a more suitable leader as he is ‘quicker in speech’ and ‘more inventive’. However, it appears as if Orwell is foreshadowing Snowball’s eventual inferiority by mentioning that he was not ‘considered to have the same depth of character’. In my opinion, throughout Chapter 2, Orwell is making the reader feel more inclines towards Snowball by presenting him as someone who strives for equality and seems to be on the animals’ side. The main source of conflict between Snowball ad Napoleon, especially during the first half of the novel, was due to the fact that ‘these two were never in agreement’ and this is shown through the way they utilise (or manipulate, in Napoleon’s case) their power over the other animals’. Snowball is full of plans and ideas, such as education and generating electricity which help optimise the animals’ lives. We know that Snowball is driven to spread the word of ‘Animalism’ by creating simplified maxims such as ‘four legs good, two legs bad’. However, Orwell portrays the idea that a lot of these plans are idealistic as many of these fail and this becomes apparent when Orwell lists them but abruptly ends the list with the sentence ‘on the whole these projects were a failure’, creating bathos and a satirical tone. On the other hand, Napoleon becomes a dictator whose only goals are to gain power for himself and the reader is aware of this when ‘the milk has disappeared’ at the end of Chapter 2- we later learn that this is mixed in  with the pig’s food. Napoleon ‘took no interest in Snowballs’ committees’ and instead uses fear and his propaganda agent Squealer to gain dominance over the animals, showing that his idea of dictatorship is based more on fascism that the utopian vision of ‘Animalism’. Squealer plants the idea in the animals’ heads that if they do not follow Napoleon ‘Jones will come back’. He also uses the dogs, which he took f rom their mothers when they were puppies and trained them to be guard dogs, as a fear element. The pigs are the most educated animals on the farm (probably due to Napoleon focusing on indoctrinating only the pigs) and use their higher skill level to position themselves above the other animals. Orwell portrays this by reminding the reader numerous times throughout the novel that the pigs were ‘the cleverest of the animals’. Napoleon abuses this which is noticeable in Squealer’s speeches when he says that apples are ‘absolutely necessary to the well-being of a pig’ and using complicated languages to obfuscate the pigs. Eventually, Napoleon usurps dominance over the farm bad the animals start looking up to him, creating dangerous maxims such as ‘Napoleon is always right’ and the sheeps’ bleating of ‘four legs good, two legs bad’ used to drown out anyone who disagrees with Napoleon. ‘Animal Farm’ mirrors the events of the Russian revolution and Orwell’s purpose is to show the reader that, althoug h it seems ideal in theory, communism is flawed. The reader can sense that this is satire because Orwell ridicules his targets by reducing political figures to the level of unflattering farm animals, especially pigs who are renowned for their greed and gluttony. Snowball represents Trotsky who was a brilliant leader. However, Napoleon attempts to expel Snowball form the farm, just like Stalin expels Trotsky. Napoleon then tries to eradicate Snowball’s name from victorious memories such as his triumph in the Battle of the Cowshed and make him into a traitor. He blames Snowball for the destruction of the windmill as well as spreading rumours that he is ‘secretly frequenting the farm by night’ and causing mischief. In my opinion, it is worrying how easily the animals’ convinced, which shows just how powerful Napoleon is. Structure plays an important role in building tension and introducing conflict. Things seem to get worse with each chapter and the farm seems to rapidly descend into a fascist dystopia soon after Snowball is chased off the farm. There also seems to a few instances of irony created by Orwell’s juxtaposition-  for example, he tells the reader that the animals suffer ‘hardships’ but that they also have a ‘greater dignity’. This portrays the ignorance of the animals, as well as conveying Orwell’s mocking tone. This mocking tone is found in various pleas throughout the novel to emphasise how oblivious the animals are to the despotic nature of Napoleon. For example, Squealer is found obviously changing the commandments but ‘none of the animals could form any idea as to what this meant’ which not only shows oblivion but due to the fact the blindly accept everything Napoleon says, they cannot think for themselves.

International Business Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

International Business Law - Assignment Example In a contractual relationship, both parties can create their rights and obligations. In other words, either party can discuss the tasks to be completed, the services or products to be provided, and the consideration that would be exchanged. Hence, a contract is a mean of structuring relationships. As there needs to be a consideration present in a contract, and not much elaboration is present on the value of the consideration, there are a lot of flexibilities in the manner in which contracts are developed (Smithies, 2007). Contracts can hence help structure commercial relationships, as in many commercial transactions the several characteristics are noted:- The payment mechanism would vary and be subjected to negotiations between both the parties The deal needs to be explained and contracts can help to explain this The legal enforcement provisions would vary – for example for land purchases the statutes applicable would vary from what applies for employment agreement The applica ble law in case of disputes Contracts tries to keep several parts as informal as possible, as for daily functioning, it would be difficult to have a contract that is formal and speaks in terms of strong legal language. The applicability of contract can be used for almost any kind of transactions, provided the same is for a legal motive, the parties are capable of entering into a contract, and thirdly that there is some kind of consideration involved. Damages and remedies can be prescribed and per the appropriately of the transaction and also the intentions of both the parties. The laws applicable and the primary court of jurisdiction can be inscribed as per the convenience of both the parties Dealings in contracts of the commercial nature require communication of a daily basis. Using modern technology, contractual documents and official business related testimonials can be sent across through email. A contractual agreement would respect the validity of such documents, as contracts a lso consider electronic documents of a legal nature For the convenience of commercial transactions, contracts can also be in an electronic form and would be legally valid with digital-signatures of both the parties A contractual agreement can bind a company for taking up a business transaction The intention of a contract agreement is not to create a legal relationship. Many of the commercial contracts try to ensure that legal terminologies are kept out as much as possible. A contract should not create a legal relationship, but the enforcement of the contract is such that it should be capable of legal enforcement in case one party is unable to keep up with the promises meant for the other party. In case one party defaults, the other party can look for enforceability of their rights through legal mechanisms in order to ensure smooth conductance of business. Besides, when consumers buy goods or use services, in order to ensure that the quality of goods or services is maintained, the sa me guarantee can be provided through a contractual agreement. A breach of contract would arise when the terms and conditions of the contract are not met by one party. For contractual disputes to be settled common law, statutory law, constitutional mechanisms, international trade agreements or conventions, consumer law, etc,

Earth's Deserts Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Earth's Deserts - Research Paper Example The most important abiotic factor which influences the desert ecosystem is rainfall. Most deserts are characterized by the fact that it experiences little or no rainfall. The deserts receive a total of less than 300 mm of rainfall per year, where a rainforest receives about 2000 mm. The lack of rain, and ultimately water in a desert makes the vegetation scarce and influences the adaptation of the plants and organisms. Plants such as cacti which are very common in a desert ecosystem have adapted to the scarcity of water by storing water in their stems. The saguaro cacti do not have very deep roots, allowing it to soak up rain and dew before it evaporates. It's spongy surface inside expands to hold more water (Cunningham n.d.). Bushes develop small and few leave, but long roots to adapt to the harsh conditions by conserving water. Some plants are short lived and grow only during when rain is available. Temperature is another important factor which has a great impact on the ecosystem which ultimately is affected by another abiotic factor, sunlight. The temperature in the deserts reaches its extremes on a daily basis because there is no humidity in the desert air to block the Sun rays. Mean annual temperature in North American deserts like Chihuahuan, Sonoran, and Mojave, for example, is 20-25Â ° whereas it can reach up to 49Â °. Minimum temperature here can drop to -18Â ° as well. But temperatures can be so high that rain starts falling and gets evaporated whilst it reaches the ground (The desert biome. (n.d.).

Event analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Event analysis - Essay Example However, one evening the warehouses and storage manager forgot to switch-on the refrigerating system before installing fruits and vegetables which lead to spoilage. One possible solution to the problem is through the context of change management. Management change is currently one of major domains of organisational research, and the study of organisational change has become one of the major aspects in being able and helping to measure the organisation performance; efficiency and effectiveness. It is important to understand the extent to which formal changes in management systems and role prescriptions have resulted in change in work behaviour and job satisfaction experienced by personnel (Manser, 2004). It is thus essential, when attempting to assess the impact of formally espoused changes within an organisation, to examine the extent to which, and the way in which, managers have adapted new forms of work behaviour in accordance with the new managerial role perceptions. According to Waters (1996) ever since people started to work together to reach a common goal, operations management has been an important ingredient, but since the industrial revolution, it has grown most rapidly. Operations management is the tool behind the technical improvements that makes production efficient. It is the way to plan and organize how the technology and machinery will be utilized the most. The productivity in an organization depends on both the right technology and the right way to manage it (Waters, 1996). However, TQM can be a success or failure depending on how well it is planned, implemented, measured, and encouraged. Few would disagree that continuous improvement offers substantial benefits for manufacturers (McNamara, 1999). As a basic tenet of TQM, continuous improvement can enable manufacturers to meet the competitive pressures of the global economy head-on, and to develop strategies for

School uniforms Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

School uniforms - Research Paper Example Traditionally, school uniforms were meant for the private sector and it is only recently that a viable policy was introduced for uniforms in public schools in the United States of America. It is for this reason that public school administrators are now considering uniform policies in a bid to improve the school environment and subsequently the overall performance of the students in these schools. School uniforms are universal attires worn by students while in school. On most occasions, these uniforms are designed as simple clothes that can be easily distinguished from ordinary attires. Sometimes school uniforms include simple neckties while some schools prefer to have uniforms without neckties. There have been mandatory uniform principles and policies focused on the recent push for reforms in public school especially in the United States of America. Proponents of the adoption of school uniforms in public schools emphasize the importance of these outfits. They relate the uniforms to specific academic outcomes and behaviors amongst not just students but also teachers in charge of teaching the students (Jamison, 2006). A number of researches have been conducted to ascertain the significance of school uniforms. Some researchers have found out that these attires have a considerable impact on the academic performance of students and their behavior as well. Nonetheless, these research findings have been subject to heated debates (Anthony, 2006). Critics have claimed that school uniforms have impacts on neither academic performance nor behavior of students both at school and in their homes. They claim that uniform policies may have adverse effects on student outcomes and school environments by offering a public and visible representation of strict rules and utter control (Wilken, & Van, 2012). One ought to note that the public policies revolving around education reforms

Chrysler 'Half time in America', Reverse Engineer through Research Paper

Chrysler 'Half time in America', Reverse Engineer through - Research Paper Example The discussion below thus reengineers the advert in order to earn the advert some relevance with the contemporary society in order to sell the product to the contemporary American Budget The production of the two-minute video clip requires an appropriate budget to facilitate the effective capture of every feature. The budget facilitates the production by ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate production equipment, logistics and the hiring of celebrities among many other production features. Developing the advert in a modern society would require a budget of US$ 500,000. Just as with any other marketing feature, an advert requires effective research in order to facilitate the portrayal of an appropriate and relevant aspect of the product. In doing this, the advertising team must carry out effective research in order to determine the appropriate target market and the target audience for the advert. Additionally, the company must select an appropriate media or the advert in order t o ensure that the advert earns relevance. The budget would therefore facilitate the research thus determining the features of the automobile to portray and the appropriate way of portraying such in order to position the brand appropriately among a target market. Additionally, the budget would include a traveling expense as the cast would travel to the various scenes and sustain the cast. The budget also includes the advert fee payable to the various media institutions that would air the advert. The target audience for the advert is family members who influence the purchasing decision of the families. While the parents in the family often buy commodities, the decision on the products to buy is often a family affair as some parents may incorporate the thoughts of either their children or spouses. This implies that the advert targets the general public but requires appropriate consideration by members of the upper middle class most of who are business people and therefore capable of pu rchasing the product. The timing for such an advert is therefore prime time when televisions charge exorbitant advert fees. The budget would therefore include such among other production miscellaneous. Channels of communication The most appropriate media for the advert is television. Being a video, the advert portrays specific features of the product that requires appropriate video coverage that requires equal depth of television coverage. In the two minutes, the television advert will portray the specific selling points of the products. Additionally, television permits the incorporation of audio, video and texts among other multimedia elements. This provides the developers with an appropriate opportunity for the advert to sell and position the product inn its target market. Besides the television, the contemporary society has witnessed various technological innovation key among which is the social media. Such platforms as the YouTube, Facebook and twitter would prove appropriate in marketing the product and communicating the message of the advert. The new media platforms provide the company with the opportunity to determine the length of the video adverts among many other messages that the advertisers would incorporate. The increasing use of the media in the society validates the need to use such in marketing the product. Involded parties The cast in an advert helps position

Introduction To Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Introduction To Management - Essay Example As of now this market is mainly dominated by two players, Coca-Cola and Pepsi. The rising popularity of soft drinks has contributed immensely towards the growth and prosperity of Europe and America. Today the soft-drink industry employs more than 110,000 Americans with a payroll of more than $5 billion payroll dollars. Historically Coca-Cola has dominated the industry. Until 1950 Pepsi raised hardly a flicker of recognition. But now Pepsi has become a force to reckon with. Let us underline the present circumstances; Political Factors: During the Second World War Pepsi and Coke both enjoyed increased sales as they followed the flag around the world. However, after the war ended, and incomes improved, Pepsi's sales figures started decreasing. Things improved for Pepsi mainly when after Mr. Alfred N. Steele took over the Presidency. Mr. Steele could bring in this turnaround mainly in two phases. The first phase lasted from 1950 to 1955. In this phase all out efforts were made to overcome the shortcomings of Pepsi. During the second phase, lasting from 1955 to 1960 Pepsi started direct offensive against Coca-Cola. That was the time when Coca-Cola started accepting the formidable presence of Pepsi and responding to its overtures as well. The present political conditions in US and Europe are more or less stable, with the respective governments not taking sides. Both Pepsi and coca-cola have been contributing in good measure towards the political campaigns of diverse political parties and the governme nts. One factor which has certainly come to the advantage of coca-cola is the FIFA world cup 2006 in Germany, a formidable part of European market. Euro is now the currency of twelve European Union countries, stretching from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Circle (namely Belgium, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal and Finland). Euro came into existence on 1st January 1999 when eleven (later twelve) EU countries established the conversion rates between their respective national currencies and Euro with formal circulation of bank notes and coins from 1st January 2002. Coca-Cola being the official partner of World cup soccer under these changed circumstances, not only brought it closer to the respective establishment, but having a borderless big area where people could move freely to see the football matches the frenzy generated has indeed helped coca-cola by leaps and bounds. Pepsi too appear to have recognized the trend and is focusing mainly on the markets of developing countries for now. Economic Factors: While analyzing the markets the economic factors that need to be taken care of are; Current and project economic growth, inflation and interest rates Labor supply, labor costs and unemployment Levels of disposable income and income distribution Stage of business cycle Impact of globalization Marketers need to consider the state of a trading economy in the short and long-terms. This is especially true when planning for international marketing. The soft drink industry is more than liquid refreshment and jobs and dollars. It is an industry that strongly believes in preserving the ideals and principles that helped it

Business In Global Markets Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business In Global Markets - Term Paper Example However, some other aspects that affect globalization are not easily controlled. It takes a lot of time and resources to change certain aspects that affect globalization. One of these aspects that have been affecting globalization is culture. The culture of a place is not easily changed as most of the societies in these areas savor their culture. In most cases, the behaviors of a society are connected to their culture. Therefore, it is not an easy task to separate behavior of people from their culture as the two are cemented together. Primary Components of Culture. Culture comprises of various primary and secondary components. Primary components are vital in a society as they have a direct impact on the society. Most of the primary components of culture are given priority as they have an impact on the whole community and society. The first primary component of culture is language. The language in a cultural society is the way the people in the society communicate to each other. Some of the people use verbal way of talking while others use signs. It is explained that language is a way of communicating to other members of the society and an important aspect in interaction. Therefore, globalization and spread of business will depend on the acceptance in communication with the society through language. The second primary aspect is the beliefs of the society (Meyer 17). Some societies have strong beliefs about various products that are sold in the market. Therefore, this is likely to affect the issue of globalization and spread of businesses in such an area. For example some areas have beliefs that people are strictly vegetarians. In such places, consumption of animal meat is prohibited. Therefore, a business that specializes in meat production is not likely to sprout in such an area. The third primary element of culture is the norms in the culture. Norms are stipulated in a community to help in orderliness in the society and culture. The culture upholds the need fo r orderliness, discipline and stability in the society. Without this, the society will not be peaceful ads many people will not be in peace. Similarly, the norms of a culture explain the social control that is instilled to the members of the society. This ensures the members of the society are having social control and peaceful coexistence. This could affect globalization in a number of ways. For example, when there is no social control, the environment will not be conducive to business. As such, businesses will have the fear of selling products in the market. The fourth primary aspect is values of the culture. A value is a strong aspect in a cultural society and has effect on the decisions that are made by the people. Apparently, the values of a society explain anything that people have unanimously accepted to aspire to hold it in high esteem. Therefore, when a community values discipline, all the members of the community have to be disciplined. Without such, the society is likely to punish the people that deviate from discipline. This is one of the aspects that affect globalization and business orientation in the community. The last primary component of culture is the roles and statuses of the people in the society. Many societies have various roles that should be performed by various groups. These roles are strictly observed by these communities and people have to respect such an arrangement. Deviating from such an arrangement is considered unacceptable and can be met with stringent

Project management performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Project management performance - Essay Example These shortcomings increase the confounding effects of the productivity variables measured and analyzed. The figures calculated for each of the variables of productivity (factor productivity ratios) over a period of time can be systematically plotted to identify and predict a trend that shows change in productivity. The figures for each variable can be monitored individually or collectively with other variables. To monitor productivity over a period of one year productivity metrics for each month have to be calculated. The change in productivity (trend) between one month and another or across the 12 months can be identified by simply calculating the difference in the productivity metrics. The trend can be graphically represented by plotting the productivity metric over a period of year. Fig 1 shows a trend for multifactor (labor and capital) productivity ratio calculated for the months of January is 0.560, February 0.585, March 0.615, April 0.616, May 0.610, June 0.623, July 0.623, August 0.634, September 0.598, October 0.590, November 0.589 and December 0.590. Also for the trend ident ified to be more meaningful, the variable(s) plotted must be compared with productivity of other firms with factors similar to the one in question. This can be done by comparing the productivity metrics with external benchmarks. The last bar in Fig 1 represents the benchmark for similar (small catering/restaurants service). The operation manager of the food service unit can therefore comparatively monitor performance of the unit. The work of the operation manager can be made simpler if s/he uses Microsoft Project application to measure and monitor schedule performance of staff and inputs (monetized resources). This application will allow the manager to handle large variety of data and to (intra) extrapolate outcomes. The operation managers can use the information (factor

Nicki minaj and Michael Jackson Essay Example for Free

Nicki minaj and Michael Jackson Essay The Jackson 5 (also spelled The Jackson Five, sometimes stylized The Jackson 5ive), later known as The Jacksons, or simply Jacksons, are an American popular music family group from Gary, Indiana. Founding group members Jackie Jackson, Tito Jackson, Jermaine Jackson, Marlon Jackson and Michael Jackson formed the group after performing in an early incarnation called The Jackson Brothers, which originally consisted of a trio of the three older brothers. Active from 1964 to 1990, the Jacksons played from a repertoire of RB, soul, pop and (in the 1970s) disco. During their six-and-a-half-year Motown tenure, The Jackson 5 was one of the biggest pop-music acts of the 1970s, and the band served as the launching pad for the solo careers of their lead singers Jermaine and Michael, the latter brother later transforming his early Motown solo fame into greater success as an adult artist. The Jackson 5/The Jacksons have sold 100 million records worldwide, making them one of the best selling artists of all time!!!!!!!! Nicki minaj Born in 1982, Nicki Minaj grew up with an abusive, addicted father. She attended La Guardia High School for the Arts, she was introduced to rapper Lil Wayne, who launched her career. Her 2010 debut album, pink friday,wit the single Your Love, topped the Billboard charts. A frequent cameo singer, Minajs voice was featured in seven songs on the charts. In 2012, Early Life Hip-hop artist and singer Nicki Minaj was born Onika Maraj on December 8, 1982, in Trinidad and Tobago, and moved with her family to Queens, when she was 5 years old. Minajs father was a severe drug addict with a long history of violence. At one point, he set fire to the familys home and tried to kill Minajs mother. Those early struggles, Minaj has said, helped fuel her drive to rise above the life her parents knew. Ive always had this female-empowerment thing in the back of my mind, she told Details magazine, because I wanted my mother to be stronger, and she couldnt be. I thought, If Im successful, I can change her life.' To reach that point, however, nicki developed personas for herself that would allow her to be a new person. An early incarnation was someone she called Cookie, then came Harajuku Barbie, before finally settling on Nicki Minaj. Fantasy was my reality, she has said. Minaj clearly had a knack for performance. At the age of 12, she authored her first rap, then went on to delve into acting at La Guardia High School of Music and Art, the school that inspired the movie Fame. Rapper and Singer Determined to make it in the music business, Minaj took on backup singing roles for local New York City rappers. Soon, she began writing her own material. She was eventually discovered by Dirty Money CEO Fendi, who came across Minajs MySpace page, loved what he heard, and immediately signed her to his label. That connection led Minaj to Lil Wayne, who collaborated with her on a series of mix tapes, the first of which, Playtime is Over, was released in April 2007. The recording, and subsequent mixed tapes, showcased Minajs female swagger and out-front style. By early 2010, considerable anticipation had built up around Minajs much discussed, much covered debut album, which was scheduled for release that fall. In April of that year, she released her first single, Massive Attack. Two months later she won Best Hip-Hop Female at the annual BET Awards. She dedicated the award to Lil Wayne.she later became an America idol jugde.

The social consequences as a result of EU expansion Essay Example for Free

The social consequences as a result of EU expansion Essay The accession of ten nations of Eastern Europe will increase the existing social crisis in these nations and also the entire EU. The Eastern Europe population has already suffered a lot as a result of increase in unemployment levels, poverty decreased wages, the destruction of various social provisions in the region in an attempt of fulfilling the membership requirements of EU. There has been introduction of conditions of a free market, the enterprises which were formerly being controlled by the governments have been privatized and also taking up measures which are quite radical by various states in order to join the EU has left the economies and social conditions of their countries very much devastated (MCCORMICK, 2007). The wage levels in the countries that are seeking to be admitted to the EU community are currently lower by 5 to 8 times as compared to the wage levels in the EU. The per capita average of the gross domestic product in EU countries is currently about twenty four thousand two hundred and fifty euros which is quite high when compared to that of states that are seeking to join the EU community such as Hungary and Latvia that only have a gross domestic product of seven thousand and eighty euros and three thousand seven hundred and forty respectively. The main cause of poverty in most states seeking admission into the EU community is unemployment; it has increased drastically in these countries over the last one and a half decades. A good example is that of the republic of Czech where it has increased from about zero point seven percent in 1990 to about six point five in the year 1998 and it is currently about eleven percent. On average, this percentage is twice as much in EU (Fischer, 2000). Although, the figures given above do not give a true reflection of the comparison, since there exists a lot of regional disparity. But the quest for countries to become members of the EU community and thus trying as much as they can to fulfill the conditions set is an obvious factor that has made these countries to experience some of these devastating problems like increased levels of unemployment and deterioration in the social amenities. In Bratislava which is the Slovakian capital, which is about sixty kilometers away from Vienna, the levels of unemployment are about four percent. This increases to approximately sixty percent in the rural regions which are about two hundred kilometers to the east. A comparable range of unemployment can be observed in the state of Hungary. Although, the unemployment levels are very minimal in the Budapest City, in the rural areas it increases to more than forty percent (MCCORMICK, 2007). The enterprises of the Western Europe consider the regions in the east of Europe as a paradise for their investments. This has made the states in the Eastern Europe to reduce their taxes in an attempt to make of making these regions attractive to the Western Europe investors. Czech Republic has reduced the rate of business taxes by about seven to twenty four percent. Poland has followed the steps of Slovakia and has introduced a tax rate which is uniform of nineteen percent which is applied uniformly whether one is just as ordinary employee or is a millionaire (MCCORMICK, 2007). The tax incentives together with massive differentials in the average wages has made several corporations to rapidly shift their production plants to the Eastern Europe states. This will in future make the states in these regions such as Slovakia to become the major car producers in the world when computed per person of the Slovakian population. Information and Technology as well as service industries are also being moved to these regions this will in future mean the creation of massive jobs in these regions as well as development of infrastructure (Roney, Budd, 1998). However, despite the major benefits that is likely to arise as a result of the tax incentives in these regions, the tax experts are warning the governments of these states that these measures are likely to be insufficient to enable these governments adequately cater for all their needs. They will also never be fully compensated for the shortfalls they will experience from the decreased revenues arising due to the reforms. These tax measures will leave several big holes in their budgets and as a result they will not be able to provide their citizens with all the necessary social amenities (MCCORMICK, 2007). In part, this state of affairs has been achieved already in the countries that wish to become members of the EU community. As far as the economists are concerned the foreign trade and budget deficits are the real potential crisis to the economies of these accession states. A good example is the one Estonia where the deficit in its budget rose to about fifteen percent in 2003. This is higher by about five times when compared to the deficit in the Argentinean budget in 2001 which was responsible of provoking a massive financial crisis. In 2004 Hungary, there was massive pressure on the forint as a result of the increasing deficit in the country’s budget. At that time the deficit in the foreign trade was about fifty eight percent while in Latvia it approximated sixty four percent of the total gross domestic products (Hofmann, Turk, 2006). Contrary, the accession countries will not improve the state of affairs even after they become members to the EU community. All the relevant economic indicators show that the disparity in wages between the west and the east will continue to persist for more than a decade after their accession. Again the reforms being undertaken by the states in the east of Europe will continue even after their accession. For example, the government of the Republic of Czech revealed that more reduction in pensions provision and health sector were necessary. Considering the prevailing welfare condition in the country, such a move can only be equated to privatization (MCCORMICK, 2007). Most likely, the Western Europe conditions will be modified with the conditions of states that are seeking accession. Even more attacks which are very comprehensive on the social standards and wages will be required to continue being competitive. According to an economic research study that was conducted by the University of Munich, indicated that the cut in wages that has been proposed in East Germany should be implemented. This is because after the accession of the Eastern Europe states, the regional financial support that was coming from the Brussels will decrease and this will lead to increased unemployment which will be a major threat to the economy of these countries (MCCORMICK, 2007).

Challenges That Face Democracy In Malaysia Politics Essay

Challenges That Face Democracy In Malaysia Politics Essay The basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled in society are the essential of human dignity. The rights of human cannot replace nor can be against each other. Socialists protect the rights of Malaysia citizen and protect individual safety, freedom of belief, free expression of opinion, and freedom of association and protection from torment and humiliation. Socialists are devoted to achieving freedom from hunger and wants from Malaysia citizen, actual community security and the rights to work. The countrywide struggles for democratic socialism for the years revealed differences in policy and difference on legislative provisions. These reflect the different histories and pluralism of diverse societies. Socialists do not possess the proposal for a fixed and decisive society, which cannot be changed, reformed or supplementary developed. Solidarity is the influential weapon in the struggle against unkindness and unfairness and it embraces all the citizen in Malaysia. Equality is the precondition of free development of personality. It does not mean regularity and levelling out, but opposition against exploitation and against the rights of those controlling economic and political authority. There must be equal rights and opportunities for the different cultures within each society as well as equal right to use for everyone in Malaysia. Democratic socialism uphold the authority to rule and anxiety for the well-being of people of all classes, the right to a civilized and hygienic environment, the right to inclusive education and training, as well as the ability to contribute in administration and all decision-making processes. Democratic party Malaysia Around 50 years ago, Malaysia began practising parliamentary democracy when the first post-independence general election was held in 1959. An important aspect of the democratic system is elections. Elections in the practice of democracy constitute a social contract between the people and the candidate or party that succeeds to form a government. Barisan National (coalition) United Malays National Organization The United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu in Malay, is the largest political party in Malaysia and a founding member of the Barisan Nasional coalition, which has ruled the country uninterrupted since independence. After the British returned to Malaya in the aftermath of World War II, the independence movement started to take wing to oppose the British plan of a Malayan Union. A series of Malay congresses were held, culminating in the formation of UMNO on May 11, 1946 at the Third Malay Congress in Johor Bahru, with Datuk Onn Jaafar at its head. However, membership in UMNO was and continues to be limited to members of the Malay (bumiputra) race, and Onn Jaafars attempt to change this policy and the partys name into the United Malaya National Organisation was rejected in 1951. Onn Jaafar resigned in protest, but his role was taken up by Tunku Abdul Rahman who steered the country to independence in 1957. Malaysian Chinese Association The Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) is a political party in Malaysia, made up of Malaysian Chinese and one of the three major parties that make up the ruling Barisan Nasional, or National Front. Along with the larger UMNO and the smaller Malaysian Indian Congress, the MCA has a heavy influence on the politics of the country. Through its holding company Huaren Holdings, the MCA also controls five significant newspapers: The Star, Malaysias best-selling English newspaper; Sin Chew Jit Poh, the best-selling Chinese newspaper; and smaller Chinese dailies China Press, Nanyang Siang Pau, and Guang Ming. The Malaysian Chinese Association was formed on 27 Feb 1949 with Sir Tun Tan Cheng Lock as the inaugural President. The MCA is form to safeguard democracy and freedom of the citizen in Malaysia safeguard the legitimate rights of the Chinese community. The party desire to strive for equal status for all races in the country and uphold social justice. In addition, MCA is to promote racial harmony and national unity and national economic and social development Malaysian Indian Congress The Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) is one of the oldest political parties of Malaysia, established in August 1946. It was established in the cause of the continuing struggle of the inter-war tears, to end British Colonial rule, as well as in the require for representation on behalf of Indian Community in the post war development of the country. Its founder President was John A. Thivy (1946-1947). The Party was committed to the attainment of freedom and democracy for the country. Besides that, MIC desires to build a positive inter-racial harmony and cooperation. General prosperity and stability of the country and a fair share for the Indian community in the future of the country also the attainment that MIC want to accomplish. Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia was founded in 1968. Since then, the party have been growing from strength to strength despite external constraints and internal problems. Through sincere leadership, practical strategies and non-communal approaches, the party have been successful in obtaining support to strive for a democratic united Malaysia characterized by racial harmony, social justice, economic equality, political democracy and cultural liberalism. As a relatively young party, the party has encountered moments of triumph and suffering in the struggle. The current leader of Gerakan is Tan Sri Dr. Koh Tsu Koon who won the post of President uncontested in the 2008 party elections. As of 2006[update], about 80% of Gerakans members are ethnic Chinese, another 15% are Indian, and the rest are Malays or other races. The PGRM have been complimented as well as criticized. But all the same, the party never faltered in faith. Integrity and ability have again and again been proven through deeds and words, both internal and outside the government sphere. The receptivity to peoples criticism and advice, and sensitivity to the citizen needs and aspirations are the two major elements that make the party a dynamic and resilient political force in the national arena. The party suffered its worst electoral defeat in the 2008 General Election, which saw the party retaining only two parliament seats, compared to the 10 seats it had before the election. As a result, the party lost its only cabinet post in the ensuing cabinet shuffle. In addition, Gerakan also lost power in Penang after governing the state for almost 39 years. Liberal Democratic Party (Malaysia) The Liberal Democratic Party is a Chinese political party originally founded in the town of Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia by Hiew Min Kong in 1989. The party is considered a minor political party in Malaysia, having its base mainly in Sabah. Its sole parliamentary seat in the Dewan Rakyat is the Sandakan seat which was won by the partys president, Liew Vui Keong in the 2008 General Elections under the Barisan Nasional ticket. The objectives of Liberal Democratic Party Sabah are to honour and protect the Constitution of Malaysia and to uphold the principles of the Rukun Negara. To strive for and establish a fair and equal society regardless of racial origin or belief and to inspire into the people the spirit of mutual respect, tolerance and friendliness in a multi-racial, multi-cultural and multi-religious society. LDP wish to eliminate corruption in all forms in the Government and to ensure the establishment of a government fully accountable to the people. LDP safeguard the interests of Sabah within the context of Malaysia and co-operate with other political organisations with similar aims and objectives on a Malaysian basis in joint political activities. Top of Form Barisan Alternatif (coalition) Democratic Action Party The DAP or Democratic Action Party was founded on 18th March 1966. Using its symbol of the Rocket, the DAP had contested in 10 general elections from 1969 to 2008. The vision of the party is to create a peaceful and successful social democracy that can unite the different races and diverse religions and cultures based on a Malaysian Malaysia concept by forging Malaysian race with universal moral values and offering equal rights and opportunity. The party is democratic governance and rule of law and creating wealth and distributing wealth equitably. The party is fighting against corruption as well The DAP is committed to the fight for a free, democratic socialist Malaysian Malaysia, based on the principles of human rights, equality, social and economic justice, and founded on the institution of parliamentary democracy. As democratic socialists or social democrats, the party is desire a social environment whereby there can be liberated development of the human personality within the community. As a member of Socialist International (SI), DAP is one with democratic socialists or social democrats throughout the world fighting for the cause of humanity and social democracy. DAP is in solidarity with oppressed peoples who oppose unjust wars and production of weapons for war and who advocate peace and prosperity based on equal co-operation aided by scientific knowledge and technical advancement. Early electoral successes and related events The DAP contested a general election for the first time in 1969. In line with their commitment to equality, the DAP originally campaigned against Bumiputra privileges, such as those afforded to them by Article 153 of the Constitution. Article 153 is one of the most controversial articles in the Malaysian constitution. Critics consider it to create an unnecessary and racialist distinction between Malaysians of different ethnic backgrounds, because it has led to the implementation of affirmative action policies which only benefit the Bumiputra, who comprise a majority of the population. They also continued Lee Kuan Yews campaign for a Malaysian Malaysia, the idea of which was originally conveyed by Lee in Parliament: Malaysia to whom does it belong? To Malaysians. But who are Malaysians? I hope I am, Mr Speaker, Sir. But sometimes, sitting in this chamber, I doubt whether I am allowed to be a Malaysian. The DAP went on to win 13 Parliamentary seats and 31 State Assembly seats, with 11.9% of all valid votes that were cast in the election; the Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan) which campaigned on a similar platform also made major gains. The 1969 election marked the biggest gains ever made by an opposition party in Malaysia (before 2008), and came close to seeing the ruling Alliance toppled from power. However, a march made by the DAP along with Gerakan as part of the opposition team led to violence, and resulted in what was euphemistically termed the May 13 Incident. Parliament was suspended for two years, and the executive branch of the government assumed power. When Parliament reconvened, it passed pieces of legislation such as the Sedition Act that illegalised discussion of repealing certain portions of the Constitution. Most of these concerned Bumiputra privileges, such as Article 153. The DAP and the Peoples Progressive Party (PPP) were the only parties that voted against the Act, which passed by a vote of 125 to 17. After the 1969 election, the DAP would never come close to repeating its past successes for the next 38 years. Although the DAP remained a major opposition party, the ruling coalition had clung solidly to its two-thirds parliamentary majority. The DAP, however, continued campaigning on its platform of abolishing the Bumiputra privileges, giving equal rights for all Malaysians regardless of race and establishing a democratic socialist state in Malaysia. During the Mahathir administration in 1987, several DAP leaders, including Parliamentary Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang, were detained by the government without trial during Operation Lalang, under the accusation of being a national security threat. It is widely believed they were arrested for protesting the expansion of the New Economic Policy (NEP). KeADILan The Peoples Justice Party of Malaysia (KeADILan) is the only multi-racial, multi-ethnic political party in Malaysia calling for widespread political reform and advocating for social justice for all Malaysians.   KeADILan believes good governance and accountability of public servants is the cornerstone of the Malaysian democracy and as such has been outspoken against the excesses of the current government, which is seen to be beholden to special interests and cronyism.   Borne in the upheaval of the 1998 movement known as Reformasi, the National Justice Party (NJP) headed by Dr. Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, the wife of former Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, captured five seats in Parliament solidifying the young partys role in national politics. In 2003 the NJP merged with the Malaysian Peoples Party to form the Peoples Justice Party, still headed by Dr. Wan Azizah. A true reflection of Malaysias multi-ethnic population, KeADILans ranks are filled with Malays, Indians and Chinese dedicated to building a prosperous Malaysia wedded to the principles of freedom and democracy.   KeADILan is dedicated to overcoming generations of race-based politics which have prevented Malaysia from realizing its potential as a diverse society.   This year KeADILan has experienced a surge in popularity under the leadership of Anwar Ibrahim and in light of widespread public dissatisfaction with the current Malaysian government.   General elections are anticipated in 2008 and KeADILan is slated to make substantial gains at the polls. Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party The Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party commonly known as PAS or Pas, is an Islamist political party in Malaysia and is currently headed by Datuk Seri Abdul Hadi Awang. PAS positions itself as a political party that aims to establish Malaysia as a country based on Islamic legal theory derived from the primary sources of Islam, the Quran, Sunnah as well as Hadiths, as opposed to Barisan Nasionals Islam Hadhari, which PAS sees as based on a watered-down understanding of Islam. The party enjoys strong support from the northern rural and conservative states such as Kelantan and Terengganu. It is also the first opposition party in independent Malaysias history to defeat the Barisan Nasional coalition in a Malay dominated state. PAS, together with Parti KeADILan Rakyat (known as PKR), and Democratic Action Party (known as DAP) formed part of a coalition called Pakatan Rakyat following the 2008 election. Together, Pakatan Rakyat now controls four states in Malaysia which are Kelantan, Kedah, Selangor and Penang. Criticisms towards UMNO-led Barisan National government PAS often opposed and criticised the Barisan Nasional coalition. However, for a brief period from 1973 to 1978, under the leadership of Asri Muda, PAS was brought into the BN fold.The Islamic opposition party often alleges that the economic and social problems of Malaysians and Malay-Muslims are the fault of the UMNO-dominated Barisan Nasional federal government in Kuala Lumpur. PAS claims that after independence, social problems such as drugs, corruption and promiscuity have increased and blames the UMNO-led government for allowing these problems to arise. PAS is of the view that its leadership can overcome these perceived problems for the benefit of the Muslim and non-Muslim electorate alike by establishing an Islamic state. Pakatan Rakyat Pakatan Rakyat or PR (English: Peoples Pact / Peoples Alliance) is an informal Malaysian political coalition formed on April 1, 2008. The political coalition comprises a group of Malaysian political parties, namely, the Peoples Justice Party (PKR), Democratic Action Party (DAP), and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), who collectively worked together in what was colloquially called the Barisan Rakyat (Peoples Front) during the 12th Malaysian general election in 2008. In the 10th General Election, they had formed the Barisan Alternatif (Alternative Front). Each political party in Peoples Alliance has its own ideology; PKR promotes its ideals that revolve around social justice and anti-corruption themes, PAS with its aim to establish Malaysia as a nation based on Islamic legal theory and DAP with its secular, multi-racial, social democratic ideals. Pakatan Rakyat is to be collectively led and managed, by all three parties and pledges to uphold the rights and interests of all Malaysians. With the establishment of the Pakatan Rakyat coalition, the state governments of Kelantan, Kedah, Penang and Selangor are known as the Pakatan Rakyat state governments.

European Imperialism :: Papers

European expansion was almost a certainty. The continent was relatively poor place for agriculture, which pushed Europeans outside of Europe in search of new soil. Different countries sent explorers, like Columbus and Magellan, to find unknown trade routes to India and Asia. They stumbled onto new sources for raw materials and goods and Europe was suddenly substantially profiting. The exploration of Africa, Asia, and South America provided new wealth. It increased the standard of living for Europeans, introduced them to spices, luxurious goods, silver, and gold (class notes). Later revolutions and reformers throughout the 19th and 20th centuries transformed European society and continually provided the continent with new interests, experiences, and ideas. As a result, Europeans developed new technology, which enabled them to explore unknown territory and expand their influence overseas. European imperialism began in the 14th and 15th centuries. There were a variety of factors that allowed for expansion. First of all, because the population of Europe was low there was a potential for rapid population growth. Secondly, Europe was relatively small which made it venerable to invasion and provoked the need for strong armies. The fact that it was divided into states provoked the need for strong governments and because there was no one power that could change things in Europe they obtained a relatively strong freedom of thought. This solidarity gave Europe the power to send voyages and explorations around the globe to help find new resources. Futhermore, Europe sent explorers to find different and needed trade routes to Asia and India because the land routes were extremely long (class notes). Also, public opinion played an important role in the support of imperialism. Many people who weren't pleased with their economic and political status could migrate to new re gions to find other opportunities. Others were inspired to spread the word of Christianity and sought a new standard of living. But most importantly, Europeans were concerned with the quest for material goods and to grow rich (textbook pg. 878). There were many changes in the methods from early imperialism to late expansionism. For example, unlike "new imperialism" early European expansion focused on establishing trading posts in different countries, instead of actually taking over the land and adding empires like later imperialism.

Essay --

â€Å"Demaryius Thomas is at the 20, the 10, TOUCHDOWN! The crowd goes wild! The Denver Broncos are going to the Super Bowl!† exclaimed, the newscaster. This wonderful image has been in the dreams of every Denver Broncos’ fans for over a decade. It has now become reality, for the Denver Broncos are participating in Super Bowl XLVIII. This paper’s main focus is to provide information on the Denver Broncos history, players, coaches, its super charged offense, and the Broncos’ road to the Super Bowl. According to Broncos history, the Denver Broncos first joined the National Football League (NFL) in 1960 with a dismal season winning only four out of the 14 games under the helm of Head Coach Frank Filchock. It took 17 years until the Denver Broncos made it to their first Super Bowl XII. Colorado embraced this team and nicknamed them the â€Å"Orange Crush† named after their perilous defense. Led by head coach Red Miller and quarterback Craig Morton, unfortunately they lost to the Dallas Cowboys in a 27 to 10 game. The Denver Broncos fans had to wait another 9 years for the next three Super Bowls under the direction of Head Coach Dan Reeves and with Colorado’s most iconic quarterback, John Elway in 1986, 87, and 89. Quite surprisingly, the Broncos lost all three Super Bowls (XXI, XXII, and XXIV) in the 80’s. Finally in the late 90’s John Elway near retirement led the 1997 and 1998 Broncos to their first two consecutive Super Bowl wins (XXXII and XXX III) under Head Coach Mike Shanahan. Presently, the Denver Broncos are the American Football Conference (AFC) Champions winning the game against the New England Patriots on January 19th, 2014. John Fox the 14th head coach of the Denver Broncos with a 24-year coaching career has won 112 gam... ...chdowns, nearly 4,000 receiving yards. This is his first Super Bowl appearance. Minnesotan, Eric Decker number 87 in his 4th year with the Denver Broncos scored 33 touchdowns, and 3,000 receiving yards. In week, 13 of the 2013-2014 season Decker earned the AFC Offensive Player of the Week award after scoring four touchdowns in a single game. To summarize, the Denver Broncos are on pace to becoming the best team in the history of the NFL. Consequently, on February 2nd, 2014 the Denver Broncos must face off against the Seattle Seahawks, the best team in the NFC at Super Bowl XLVIII. This highly anticipated game will decide the fate of which team can claim they are the World Champions. It will take the entire Denver Broncos team, coaches, players, and fans to conquer the mighty Seahawks and claim their prize in the history books as the best team in the world.

Public Art Essay -- Art

Public Art â€Å"Any drawn line that speaks about identity, dignity, and unity is art,† (Chaz Bojorquey) is a statement that I agree with. Art is perceived differently from all people based on their culture, religion, personal taste, and many other factors. I believe that as long as what has been created is meaningful to either the creator or even to somebody that is viewing it, it should be considered art. Art in the public is a very controversial subject that brings up the important question of, â€Å"Should public art be considered as real art,† personally I think that it should be. I believe that the difference between art that is placed in a gallery and art that is visible by a community is the fact that what is acceptable in a gallery is different than what is acceptable on the streets of our communities. When art can and will be viewed by the members of that town, there must be some line that cannot be crossed. There are many aspects that make public art an important addition to our communities, and there are also aspects that may be negative in the eyes of some. My love for art, as a whole, has a large affect on my acceptance of art in the public, but my love does not blind me to the reasoning as to why people may not agree with it. There are many different forms of what is to be considered public art. It can range from sculptors, paintings, murals, mosaics, graffiti, tagging, and even more. Many people often forget about the excitement that art has to offer; the way that it makes people feel is a sensation that can truly not be replaced by any other sight. Having something symbolic and cultural in your community enlightens the people that live there. It is what sets you apart from any other town. For instance it give... ...something that is often under appreciated or forgotten. Having art in the public more may be a large step toward teaching the future generations to appreciate creativity and participate in being creative. If something as simple as ground green marbles in a tar road can take my (a seventeen year old girl) breath away then imagine the reaction that could be expected from art being every where. My biggest fear is art being forgotten and with the beauty it has to offer being around more for everyone to see could eliminate that fear. Public art should be appreciated even though it may not be understood by all. It is a way to bring in tourism, excitement, beauty, creativity, and pure enjoyment to communities. I would like to end my paper with a quote from Pablo Picasso that expresses the way I fell about art, â€Å"Art washes away from the soul the dust of everyday life.†

Thermodynamic Analysis and Performance Characteristics

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND DESIGN THE THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTRISTICS OF A TURBOFAN JET ENGINE By J. E, Ibok 2011 Supervisor: Dr Lionel Ganippa ABSTRACT This work focuses on the performance analysis of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. The main objective was to investigate the effects of using hydrogen, kerosene and natural gas fuel on the performance characteristics such as net thrust, specific fuel consumption and propulsive efficiency of the turbofan.Another aim of this work was to introduce the concept of exergy and thermoeconomics analysis for twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine and show the components that contributes the most to the inefficiency of the engine. A generic simulation was carried out using Gas Turb 11 software to obtain reasonable analysis results that were verified with a real-time JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The parametric analysis was done for constant value of mass flow rate of fuel and constant turb ine inlet temperature for all three fuels.The result were rightfully obtained for these analysis cases and discussed accordingly. Brunel University Mechanical Engineering Academic Session: 2010/2011 Name of Student: Johnson Essien Ibok Supervisor:Dr Lionel Ganippa Title: The Performance Characteristics and Thermodynamics Exergy and Thermoeconomics analysis of a Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Operating at 30,000ft at M0 0. using Kerosene, natural Gas and Hydrogen Fuel. Abstract: This work focuses on the performance analysis of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. A generic simulation was carried out using Gas Turb 11 software to obtain reasonable analysis results that were verified with a real-time JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The parametric analysis was done for constant value of mass flow rate of fuel and constant turbine inlet temperature for all three fuels.The result were rightfully obtained for these analysis cases and discussed accordingly. Objectives: The main aim of this work is to conduct the parametric cycle simulation of a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine and investigate the performance characteristics of it. Another aim of this work is to show the effects of using hydrogen, Kerosene and natural gas fuel on the overall performance of the twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine.Also, the purpose of this work is to introduce the use of the second law of thermodynamics analysis known as exergy and thermoeconomics in analysis the twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine Background/Applications: This work is applicable in so many ways when it comes to the overall performance optimization and feasibility analysis of a jet engine. This work relates to the aerospace and aviation industries since the turbofan engine is amongst the vast number of jet engine used in propulsion of aircrafts.There is increasing pressure in the aviation industry to reduce pollution and depletion of energy resources while at the same time maintaining reasonable investment cost and high overall performance. Hence, this research was conducted in hopes of coming up with a new solution to this problem. Conclusions: The main conclusion drawn from the performance analysis is that hydrogen fuel produced the highest thrust level and the lowest specific fuel consumption between the three fuels for a constant mass flow rate of fuel.Kerosene fuel generated thrust level can be increased if it is mixed with a small amount of hydrogen. The Exit jet velocity ratio remained constant despite the increasing bypass ratio for all three fuels at constant mass flow rate of fuel. Using the exergetic analysis showed that the combustion chamber and the mixer contributed the most to the inefficiency of the turbofan engine. The amount of exergy transferred into the turbofan engine by hydrogen was depleted in the smallest ratio compared to natural gas and kerosene for constant mass flow rate of fuel.The thermoeconomics analysis showed that it is preferable to use local based co st evaluation to quantity specific thermoeconomics cost of thrust than the global method since the value was lower. Results: The results obtained from the simulation using Gas Turb 11 produced an error range of 0. 25% – 8. 5% when verified with the actual test data of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine. The results obtained for the analysis defined a reference design point at which the parametric analysis was conducted on. The analysis was done in three cases as shown clearly in the test matrix in table 1 below.Analysis| Parameters being varied| Parameters Kept Constant| Performance Characteristics| case 1| * Bypass ratio * Turbine Inlet temperature| * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure Ratio * Fan Pressure Ratio| * Velocity ratio * Fuel-Air-ratio * Turbine inlet temperature * Net thrust * Specific Fuel Consumption * Thermal efficiency * Propulsive efficiency| case 2| * Bypass Ratio * Three different fuelsmH2mCH4mC12H23| * Mass flow rate of fuel * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure R atio * Fan Pressure Ratio| | Case 3| * Bypass Ratio * Three different fuelsmH2mCH4mC12H23| * Turbine inlet temperature * HPC Pressure Ratio * LPC Pressure Ratio * Fan Pressure Ratio| | Table 1 The Test matrix of the Parametric Analysis. The exergy analysis was done for the parametric analysis of case 2 and case 3 where the exergy destruction rates, exergetic efficiency, exergy improvement potential rate and fuel depletion ratio were calculated. The distribution of these results throughout each component of the turbofan engine was represented with bar charts and Grassmann diagram. The thermoeconomics analysis was conducted for analysis case 2 using kerosene fuel.The specific thermoeconomics cost of thrust was calculated using global and local based cost evaluation methods. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to thank my parents for their financial support and encouragement because without them I would not be here and be able to do this work. I am deeply thankful to my supervi sor, Dr Lionel Ganippa for believing in me and giving me the opportunity to work with him in this field of study. I am also thankful to him for giving the necessary guidance and advice and his enthusiasm and innovative ideas inspired me. Finally, I would like to thank Mr Joachim Kurzke for providing me with the necessary software needed for my dissertation. Table of ContentsAcknowledgements i Contents ii List of Notations and Subscripts iv List of Tables vi List of Figures vi Chapter 1: Introduction1 1. 1. Aims and Objectives2 1. 2. Computational Modeling3 Chapter 2: Jet Engines4 2. 1. Performance characteristics4 2. 1. 1. Thrust4 2. 1. 2. Thermal Efficiency5 2. 1. 3. Propulsive efficiency5 2. 1. 4. Overall efficiency6 2. 1. 5. Specific Fuel Consumption6 2. 2. Fuel and Propellants For Jet Engines7 Chapter 3: Turbofan Jet Engines †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦8 3. 1. Introduction 8 3. 2. Classification of Turbofan Engines9 3. 3. Major Components of a Turbofan Engine10 3. 3. 1. Diffuser10 3. 3. 2. Fan and Compressor11 3. 3. 3. Combustion Chamber12 3. 3. 4. Turbine13 3. 3. 5. Exhaust Nozzle14 3. 4.Thermodynamic Process and Cycle of a Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine15 Chapter 4: Mathematical and Gas turb 11 Modeling of the turbofan Engine18 4. 1. Station Numbering and Assumptions18 4. 2. Design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine18 4. 3. Off-design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine21 4. 3. 1. Module/Component Matching 22 4. 3. 2. Off-Design Point Component Modeling22 Chapter 5: Methodology, Results and Discussions26 5. 1. General Relationship equations of the Major Parameters27 5. 2. Results and Discussions of Parametric cycle Analysis of Case 129 5. 3. Results and Discussions of Parametric Cycle Analysis of Case 235 5. 4.Results and Discussions of Parametric Cycle Analysis of Case 343 Chap ter 6: Exergy and Thermoeconomics Analysis of the Turbofan Engine49 6. 1. Exergy Analysis49 6. 1. 1. Exergy Analysis Modeling 50 6. 1. 2. Exergy and Energy Balance Equations of the Components58 6. 1. 3. General Relationships in Exergetic Analysis of the Turbofan Engine60 6. 1. 4. Results and Discussions61 6. 1. 5. Grassmann Diagram72 6. 2. Thermoeconomics Analysis74 6. 2. 1. Thermoeconomics Analysis Modelling74 6. 2. 2. Global Based Cost Evaluation76 6. 2. 3. Local Based Cost Evaluation77 6. 2. 4. Results and Discussion of the Thermoeconomics Analysis78 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Future Work80 Reference Appendix A Exergy Analysis Results Appendix B Thermoeconomics Analysis resultsList of Notations and Units ?| Isentropic efficiency| ?| Total Pressure ratio| m| Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)| f| Fuel/Air Ratio| M| Mach Number| Pt| Total pressure (kPa)| Tt| Total Temperature (K)| NCV| Net Calorific Value (MJ/kg)| Ht| Total Enthalpy (kJ/kg)| V| Velocity (m/s)| ?| Bypass Ratio| T| Static Temperat ure (K)| P| Static Pressure (kPa)| N| Actual Spool Speed (RPM)| Nc| Corrected Spool Speed (RPM)| mc| Corrected Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)| R| Universal Gas Constant (kJ/kmolK)| ?0| Standard Chemical Exergy (kJ/kmol)| Ex| Exergy Rate (MW)| xi| Mole Fraction| cp| Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (kJ/kgK)| ?| Ratio of Chemical Exergy to NCV| ?| Exergetic Efficiency| | Fuel Depletion Ratio| W| Power Rate of Work done (MW)| List of Subscripts| | LPT| Low Pressure Turbine| HPT| High Pressure Turbine| CC| Combustion Chamber| HPC| High Pressure Compressor| LPC| Low Pressure Compressor| d| Diffuser| noz| Nozzle| mix| Mixer| dest| Destruction Rate| 0, ambFAR| Ambient conditionFuel-Air-Ratio| CH| Chemical| PH| Physical| KN| Kinetic| PN| Potential| IP| Exergy Improvement Potential Rate (MW)| CRF| Cost Recovery Factor| c| Specific Thermoeconomic Cost (MJ/kg)| STD| Standard Temperature and Pressure| TIT| Turbine Inlet Temperature| TSFC| Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kNs)| SFC| Specific Fuel Co nsumption| p| Propulsive| TH| Thermal|O| Overall| T| Thrust| equip| Equipment| PEC| Capital Cost of Equipment| List of Tables Table 1 input parameters for Design Point Cycle Simulation on Gas Turb 1119 Table 2 Comparison table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Data using gas Turb 1121 Table 3 Comparison Table for Actual Test Data and Simulated Off-Design Point data Using gas Turb 11. 25 Table 4 Equivalence Ratio of the three Fuels Combustion Processes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 62 Table 5 Assumed Capital costs of Each Component of the Turbofan Engine. 75 Table 6 Flow of Specific Thermoeconomics Cost in all the Components 79 List of Figures Figure 1 Classification of Turbofan Engine9Figure 2 Layout of Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan16 Figure 3 T-S Diagram for the Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan17 Figure 4 Design Point Cycle Simulation Algorithm Using Gas Turb 1120 Figure 5 Example of a Compressor Performance Map/Cu rve24 Figure 6 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Fuel-Air-Ratio30 Figure 7 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Exit Velocity Ratio30 Figure 8 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on LPT Exit Pressure Ratio31 Figure 9 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Net Thrust32 Figure 10 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Specific Fuel Consumption33 Figure 11 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio at Constant Values of TIT on Propulsive Efficiency34 Figure 12 Effects of Varying Bypass Ratio t Constant Values of TIT on Thermal Efficiency35 Figure 13 T-S diagram of using Hydrogen Fuel when the bypass Ratio is increased36 Figure 14 Variation of Fuel-Air-Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels37 Figure 15 Variation of TIT with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels37 Figure 16 Variation of Exit Velocity Ratio with Byp ass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels38 Figure 17 Variation of LPT Exit Pressure Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels39 Figure 18 Variation of Net Thrust with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels40 Figure 19 Variation of Specific Fuel Consumption with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels41 Figure 20 Variation of Thermal Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels42 Figure 21 Variation of Propulsive Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant Fuel Flow Rate using three different Fuels43 Figure 22 Variation of Fuel-Air-Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels44 Figure 23 Variation of Exit Velocity Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels44 Figure 24 Variation of LPT Exit Pressure Ratio with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels45 Figure 25 Variation of Net Thrust with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels46 Figure 26 Variation of Specific Fuel Consumption with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels46 Figure 27 Variation of Propulsive Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels47 Figure 28 Variation of Thermal Efficiency with Bypass Ratio at Constant TIT using the three Different Fuels48 Figure 29 Variation of Exergy Destruction Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 262 Figure 30 Variation of Exergy Destruction Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 364 Figure 31 Variation of Exergetic Efficiencies Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 266 Figure 32 Variation of Exergetic Efficiencies Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 367 Figure 33 Distribution of Exergy Improvement potential Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 268 Figure 34 Distribution of Exergy Improvement potential Rate Using the three Fuels for Analysis Case 369 Figure 35 variation of Fuel Depletion ratio using the Three Fuels for Analysis Case 270 Figure 36 variation of Fuel Depletion ratio using the Three Fuels for Analysis Case 371 Figure 37 Grassmann Diagram for the Exergetic analysis of Case 2 using kerosene Fuel for the Turbofan engine. 72 Chapter 1 Introduction Jet engines are complex thermodynamic systems that use a series of non-linear equation to define their thermodynamic processes and they operate under the principle of Brayton cycle.Brayton cycle is a cycle that comprises of the compressor, combustor and turbine working as a unit. Additionally, the major parameters that dictate the operational conditions of the engine at any point during the process are the relative altitude and Mach number. Mach number is the ratio of the velocity of the jet engine to the speed of sound. Basically, the main purpose of this type of thermodynamic system in aerospace industry is to accelerate a jet of air and as a result, generate enough thrust needed for flight. In addition, the design of jet engines is dependent of what purpose it will be used for in order to derive its maximum performance.For instance, in military application, jet engines are required to generate maximum thrust in minimum response time which consumes a lot of fuel whereas commercial jet engines are required to less noise generative, less fuel consuming and at the same time have high overall efficiency (El-sayed, 2008). There are certain factors that jet engine manufacturers take into consideration when designing jet engines which are the operating cost, engine noise, environmental emissions, fuel burn and overall efficiency. Accordingly, this has caused a global market competition for engine manufacturers like Rolls Royce, Pratt and Whitney, General Electric and CFM on who can produce the most efficient jet engines.In fact, Pratt and Whitney Company is working on a geared turbofan jet engine that they believe will reduce fuel burn, produce lesse r noise and emit less toxics while General Electric is coming up with simpler â€Å"ecore† jet engines that will be more fuel efficient than the current jet engines with as much as almost two fifths of current jet engines (Cassidy, 2008). Taking all that has been said into consideration, it can easily be asserted that by reducing the fuel consumption of the jet engine, the total temperature at the turbine blades will reduce thereby increasing the operating life and overall efficiency of the engine. Also, the total cost of the engine can be cut down. Indeed, Dr Pallan cited in (Ward, 2007) stated that reducing the fuel consumption by as little as 1% is highly longed after by engine manufacturers and this can result in very significant increase in the overall performance.In a general point of view, it can be said that the maximum point of achievement for jet engine manufacturers would be to design an engine that consumes the minimum amount of work in the compressor unit while g enerating the maximum amount of work in the turbine unit at minimum fuel supply. The main purpose of this work is to analyse the thermodynamic processes and performance of a jet engine using a simulation tool, exergy and thermoeconomics concept. 1. 1. Aims and Objectives The main objective of this work is to carry out the thermodynamic analysis and show the performance characteristics of a turbofan jet engine. In this work, the vivid explanation of the thermodynamics processes and cycle of each component of the turbofan engine starting from the diffuser to the nozzle will be covered. Also, the first and second law of thermodynamics with other laws will be applied extensively throughout this work.However, in the aspect of performance characteristics of the turbofan engine, a generic simulation will be carried out on a twin spool mixed flow turbofan engine. To relate this work to real life application, a JT8D-15A turbofan engine manufactured by Pratt and Whitney Company will be used a s the twin spool mixed flow turbofan for the simulation using the original design data. Indeed, the simulation tool that will be used is GasTurb 11 which was designed by Joachim Kurke and for more details on how it works can be found in (Kurke, 2007). This work will use the reference design point of the twin spool mixed flow turbofan at sea level with maximum take-off thrust to obtain the operating point of 30,000ft at M0 0. using the off-design performance simulation which will serve as the operating design point for the analysis in this work since the engine will spend most of its time in the cruise phase between 30000ft to 38000ft. The purpose of carrying this generic simulation of the turbofan engine is to investigate the effects of varying bypass ratio and turbine inlet temperature (thermal limit parameter) on the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine. In other words, the parametric cycle studies of the turbofan engine. This investigation will be done for three dif ferent cases which case 1 will be studying the effects of varying bypass ratio and turbine inlet temperature on the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when some of the design choices are kept constant.The second case of study will be the comparison of the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when three different fuels (kerosene, natural gas and Hydrogen) are used at the same mass flow rate using the same design point in case 1. Finally, the third case of study will be the comparison of the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when the three fuels are undergoing the same combustion process that is constant turbine inlet temperature for the design point in case 1. This aspect of this analysis is very important owing to the growing problem of greenhouse effect and depletion of energy resources. In fact, statistics by the intergovernmental panel shows that aerospace industry is amongst one of the fast growing sources of greenhouse effect and t hat the emission of carbon dioxide will increase to five times what it is presently which is 3% (Symonds, 2005).Based on this, using alternative fuels like hydrogen and natural gas can tend to reduce pollution and consumption of energy resources risk and this work aims to show how that can be achieved while the overall efficiency of the engine is still high. Another approach of analysis in this work will be the use of the second law of thermodynamics analysis also known as exergy and thermoeconomics. This aspect of analysis of the turbofan engine will be done for the parametric analysis of case 2 and case 3 in efforts to also compare the three fuels that are being considered and show which fuel will cause the turbofan engine components to be most inefficient or have the most irreversibility.This analysis will be done by calculating the exergy relationships such as exergy transfer rates, exergy destruction rates, exergetic efficiencies, exergy improvement potential rates, and fuel de pletion ratios. Furthermore, the exergy analysis will be represented in a Grassmann diagram for parametric analysis case 2 of study. However, as for the thermoeconomics analysis of the turbofan engine, only parametric analysis case 3 studies will be done for only kerosene fuel and this work will aim to show how to use concept of local and global evaluation of thermoeconomic cost. 1. 2. Computational Modelling It will be very expensive and time wasting to design and develop new aircraft engine whenever an optimization or analysis wants to be done.In fact, Caoa Y, Jin, Meng and Fletcher (2005) stated that new ways should be developed to reduce aircraft engine design, maintenance and manufacturing cost in order to have effective worldwide market competition. Surprisingly, computer modelling is one approach of reducing manufacturing cost and time wasting. Computational modelling can simply be defined as the use of computer codes to replicate a typical system using some of its original d ata in order to analyse the system at varying conditions. The other side of the medallion shows simulation. There are many types of simulation tools normally used in simulating gas turbines such as Matlab/simulink, Modelica, Gas Turb 11, NPSS and many more. However, the simulation tool that will be adopted for the purpose of this dissertation is Gas Turb 11 designed by Joachim Kurzke.Gas Turb 11 is a language oriented program with a command prompt that calculates the output data without using block diagrams or graphical interface. It is user friendly in a sense that it is easy to find the tools library and to substitute data in for simulation. The Gas Turb 11 is specifically designed for simulation of all kinds of gas turbines starting from power generators to jet engines. Gas Turb 11 usually carries out two types of analysis which are the on design cycle point simulation and off-design cycle point simulation. Engine design point cycle simulation involves the study of comparing gas turbines of different geometry. This cycle design point must be defined before any other simulation can be done.On the other hand, off-design performance cycle point simulation involves the study of the behaviour of a gas turbine with known geometry. This cycle outlines the performance characteristics of each component such as performance maps, Overall efficiency. The type of simulation that will be done in this dissertation will involve the off-design and design point cycle. Chapter 2 Jet Engines 2. 1. Performance Parameter of Jet Engines 2. 2. 1. Thrust Thrust is the way of quantifying the ability of a jet engine to effectively utilise the energy added to it in order to propel or push itself forward in the opposite direction of the exiting jet in the exhaust nozzle.In other words, it is the reactive force to the force imparted by the exiting jet in the nozzle in accordance to Isaac Newton’s third law of motion. It is the most important parameter that has to be obtained for any jet engine and it depends heavily on the ingested mass of air, exiting velocity and pressure, the area of the nozzle, the flight velocity and ambient conditions. In fact, the mathematical expression for thrust which incorporates these factors is shown below as. Thrust=meVe-m0V0+Pe-P0Ae Where, e=the exit conditions at the exhaust nozzle, 0=ambient conditions at the inlet me=m0+mfuel Momentum Thrust=meVe; This is the thrust obtained from the reaction of the hot exhaust gases high velocity.Momentum Drag= m0V0 ; This the friction or drag force caused by the high velocity ingestion of air mass at the inlet. Pressure Thrust=Pe-P0Ae; This force is generated as a result of the higher exit static pressure compared to the ambient pressure which pushes back at the engine. Gross Thrust=meVe+Pe-P0Ae; It is the maximum obtainable positive thrust a jet engine can have when the drag forces are ignored. Special Cases of Thrust Take-off Thrust It is the thrust a jet engine can generate with its o wn power at static or low power setting which means the momentum drag component of thrust is ignored and the power of the engine at this point is equivalent to zero.This can be used to explain why the thrust of an engine at take-off condition is usually higher than at cruise condition since there is no momentum drag and effects of varying ambient condition. This only applies to turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop jet engines but when it comes to ramjet and scramjet, the air flow has to be accelerated by a booster system before it can start producing a positive take-off thrust. Pressure Thrust Component This is the thrust generated as a result of the static pressures of the exiting jet and ambient environment. In ideal cases where the nozzle has perfectly expanded the jet exit pressure to that of the ambient condition, the pressure thrust component will disappear which this case is not possible in reality.However, if the nozzle is choked which indicates that the ambient pressure is low er than the exit pressure of the jet, the pressure thrust component will have a positive effect on the net thrust. Also, if the nozzle tends to over expand the jet because of low energy addition to the jet and the exit pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, the pressure thrust component will have a negative effect on net thrust. 2. 2. 2. Thermal efficiency It is simply the measure at which energy in the engine system is converted. In other words, it is the measure at which total energy supplied to the engine system as heat transfer is converted to kinetic energy.In another way, it can easily be said to be the ratio of the power generated in the engine airflow to the rate at which energy is supplied in the fuel. ?TH=Power Generated in the Engine AirflowRate of Energy Supplied in the Fuel =12? meVe2-12? m0V02mfuel? NCV 2. 2. 3. Propulsive efficiency It is a measure at which kinetic energy possessed by air as it passes through the engine is converted into power of the propulsion of the engine. In mathematical terms, it is simply known as the ratio of thrust power to the power generated in the engine airflow. ?p=Thrust PowerPower Generated in the Engine Airflow = T? V012? meVe2-12? m0V02 2. 2. 4. Overall EfficiencyAs the name overall depicts, it is the resultant efficiency of a jet engine can have which is simply the product of the thermal and propulsive efficiencies. In mathematical terms, it is represented as shown below. ?O=? TH p =12? meVe2-12? m0V02mfuel? NCV? T? V012? meVe2-12? m0V02 =T? V0mfuel? NCV 2. 2. 5. Specific Fuel Consumption Specific fuel consumption as any other performance characteristics is a ratio and surprisingly it has a major effect on the economics of the aircraft as it is used to determine the aircrafts flight ticket costs. Specific fuel consumption has different expressions depending on what type of jet engine it is. For instance, in ramjet, turbojet and turbofan jet engines, it is the measure of the fuel mass flow rate to the thrus t force generated.Also, it is sometimes called the thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC). TSFC=mfT However, in turbopropeller jet engines, it is the ratio of the fuel mass flow rate to the power generated in the engine shaft by the turbomachinery. It is sometimes referred to as the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC). TFSC=mfSP 2. 2. Fuel and Propellants for Jet Engines Fuels can implicitly be defined as substances used to add heat energy to a system through combustion or other processes. Fuels are mostly hydrocarbons like kerosene, diesel, petrol, alcohol, paraffin and butane and can also be in the form of individually free reactive molecular substances like hydrogen or chemical composites like natural gas, coal, wood.The gaseous state substances used as fuels such as hydrogen, and natural gas (94% methane and 6% ethane) are usually made into a cryogenic state as in liquefied at very low temperature because of their low boiling point. It can easily be asserted by anyone that t he only purpose that fuels have in jet engines is to add energy but little do they know that the purposes grows as the speed of the aircraft increases. For instance, Kerrebrock (2002) stated that supersonic aircrafts which attains very high stagnation temperature that can create destabilization to the airframe structure, engine component and organic substances like lubricants, uses its fuel as a coolant to this parts or components.The energy added by the fuel burned per unit mass of air flow is called the heating value of the fuel and it is a very crucial parameter to be defined before any combustion process analysis is done on a jet engine since it shows how complete the combustion process is through efficiency. The heating value can either be said to be higher or lower depending on if the water product of combustion is a vapour or a liquid. Since the combustion process in jet engine produces vaporised water, the lower heating value of the fuel is used. The most frequently used fue ls for jet engines are kerosene jet A1, A2, JP10 and many more but diesel can also be used. The disadvantages of these fuels are their inevitable emission of toxic substances that contribute to greenhouse effect and their risk of depletion.Accordingly, this has been the driving force for the use of alternative fuels such as cryogenic hydrogen and natural gas which is believed will reduce toxic emissions. Besides, hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier and possesses almost no risk of toxic emission since most of its combustion product will be water Chiesa and Laozza (2005). Chapter 3 Turbofan Jet Engine 3. 1. Introduction Between 1936 and the next decade when turbofan engines were invented, people showed little or no interest in them as they described them to be a complicated version of a turbojet engine. However, in 1956, the benefits of turbofan engines started to be noticed as major companies like Rolls-Royce and General Electric began manufacturing them.Since then, it is been o ne of the most used jet engine for commercial purposes because of its low fuel consumption and less noise production. In fact, it has been concluded to be the most reliable jet engine ever manufactured El –Sayed (2008). The turbofan jet engine gas generator unit comprises of a fan unit, compressor section, combustion chamber and turbine unit. Fundamentally, a turbofan jet engine operates as a result of the compressors pressuring air and supplying it afterwards for further processing. The majority of the pressurised air is bypassed around the core of the engine through a duct to be mixed or exhausted whereas the rest of it flows into the main engine core where it combusts with the fuel in the combustion chamber.The hot expanded gas products from the combustion process passes through the turbine thereby rotating the turbine as it leaves the engine. Consequently, the rotating turbine spins the engine spool which in turn rotates the other turbo machinery in the engine. This cause s the front fan to pressurise more and more air into the engine for the process to start all over again in continuous state. The turbofan engine is believed to be the perfect combination of the turboprop and turbojet engine and as a result, its advantages are usually compared to that of the turboprop and turbojet. In fact, Kerrebrock (1992) said that turbofan engine provides a better way of improving the propulsive efficiency of a basic turbojet.It is asserted that at low power setting, low altitude condition and low speed, the turbofan engine is more fuel efficient and has better performance than a turbojet engine. Unlike turboprop engine where vibration occurs in the propeller blades at relative low velocities, the fan in the turbofan engine can attain high relative velocities of Mach 0. 9 before vibration occurs. Also, since the fan in turbofan engines has many blades, it is more stable than the single propeller so even if the vibration velocity is reached, the vibration will not destabilize the airflow because the vibrations are almost negligible. Since the flow into the diffuser of the turbofan is usually subsonic, there very slim chances of shock waves being developed at the entrance. 3. 2. Classification of Turbofan EnginesThere are various types of turbofan engine ranging from high and low bypass ratio, afterburning and non-afterburning, mixed and unmixed flow with multi-spool, after fan and geared or ungeared. The classification of the various types of turbofan engines is shown below in figure 1. Nonetheless, the type of turbofan engine that would be used for the purpose of this dissertation is a forward fan two spool mixed flow turbofan engine. This type of turbofan engine was chosen because it is the compromise of a simple and complex turbofan engine. This is said because it comprises of almost all the classes of a turbofan which are low bypass ratio, forward fan with mixed flow, twin spool with ungeared fan.Moreover, because of the mixed flow intro duced, it produces additional thrust in the hot nozzle compared to the high bypass and it can also permit the addition of afterburner which produces a lot of thrust while consuming a lot of fuel which makes it suitable for military application which shows little worry on fuel consumption. In essence, carrying out a study on this type of turbofan engine will be of great relevance to the military air force sector especially if new research is discovered. TURBOFAN ENGINES Low Bypass Ratio Aft Fan Forward Fan Nonafterburning Afterburning High Bypass Ratio Geared Fan Single Spool Short Duct Ungeared Fan Two Spool Mixed Fan and Core Flow Unmixed Flow Long Duct Three SpoolFigure 1 Classification of Turbofan Jet Engines (El-sayed, 2008) 3. 3. Major Components of Turbofan Engine 3. 4. 1. Diffuser or Inlet Diffuser is the first component that air encounters as it flows into the engine. Basically, the purpose of a diffuser is to suck in air smoothly into the engine, reduce the velocity of the air, increase the static pressure of the air and finally, supply the air in a uniform flow to the compressor. Given the fact that overall performance of an engine is highly dependent on the pressure supplied to the burner, it is necessary to design a diffuser that incurs the minimum amount of pressure loss.To demonstrate this, Flack (2005) stated that if the diffuser incurs a large total pressure loss, the total pressure in the burner will be reduced by the compressor total pressure ratio time this loss. In other words, a small pressure drop in the diffuser can translate into a significant drop in the total pressure supplied to the burner. Another point taken into consideration when designing a diffuser is the angle because if the angle is too big, there will be tendency of eddy flow generation due to early separation. The major causes of pressure losses in the diffuser are as follows. First, losses due to generation of shock waves outside the diffuser and it majorly occur in super sonic diffusers.Secondly, the loss due to the unfavourable or adverse pressure gradient of the diffuser geometry which makes the flow separate a lot earlier and generates eddies. This separation causes a convergent area which makes the velocity not to be reduced by much. Due to the separation, the wall shear deteriorates the static pressure even further. Further analysis done by El-Sayed (2008), describes ways of accounting for this losses like using Fanno line flow and combined area and friction. Thermodynamic Process Equation In this analysis, the loss due to heat transfer is negligible so the process can be adiabatic. The initial kinetic energy is used to raise the static pressure p0 to the total pressure ? =pt2pt0 (inlet pressure recovery) efficiency ? d=IdealReal=ht2s-h0ht2-h0 assuming the gas is ideal and the specific heat at constant pressure is constant efficiency ? d=Tt2s-T0Tt2-T0 simplifying the equation given that ht0=ht2=ht2s and Tt2=Tt0and pt2s=pt2 TtT0=1+? -12M02 and T tT0=ptp0? -1? pt2p0=1+ ? d? -12M02 -1 3. 4. 2. Fan And Compressors Compressor is a very crucial component for the operation of an engine in the sense that it prepares the air for the combustion process in the burner. The main purpose of a compressor as the first rotating component is to use its rotating blades to add kinetic energy to the air and later translate it into total pressure increase.There are basically two types of compressors which are the centrifugal and the axial compressor. Firstly, centrifugal compressor as the name implies changes the direction of an axial airflow to a radial outflow of the air. It was the early compressors adapted in jet engines. It comprises of three main parts which are the impellers, the diffusers and the compressor manifold. The purpose of the impeller is to change the direction of the flow from axial to radial and at the same time increases its static pressure. The diffuser slows down the airflow and further increase the static pressure as it is supplied axially by the compressor manifold to the combustion chamber.The centrifugal compressor is advantageous because the cost of manufacturing it is low compared to axial compressor and as a result is suitable for small engines like turboshafts and turboprops. It is also advantageous because the pressure ratios at single stage are higher than that of the axial compressor. The centrifugal compressor has the tendency of attaining low flow rates and as a result is ideally suitable for helicopters and small aircrafts which require low flow rates. On the other hand, the centrifugal compressor cannot attain high pressure ratio and so it is not suitable when high peak efficiency is required. It incurs a lot of losses due to the change in direction. Secondly, an axial compressor is the most reliable type of compressor and is usually applied when higher pressure ratios of up to 40:1 are required.An axial compressor does not change the axial flow direction of the air but increases the total pressure. Indeed, an axial compressor comprises of three major components which are the rotor with blades, stator can and the inlet guide vane. A stage is a combination of a stator and a rotor. The assembly of the full rotor blade and stator can form the number of stages in a compressor and the greater the number of stages, the higher the total pressure ratio. In this arrangement, the air flows into the inlet guide vane and then into the rotor and stator assembly where compression starts. Also, the length of the rotor and stator reduces along the whole unit which signifies a reduction in volume which induces the increase in pressure.A fan or low pressure compressor is a type of axial compressor but the only differences are that the blades are longer, the total pressure ratio is lower than the typical compressor and the number of stages is usually 1 or 2. The main purpose of creating a fan is to compress more air and to create a bypass air which can be used to generate addition thrust or used for mixing process. Fan Equation Process Given that, isentropic efficiency ? fan= Ideal CycleActual cycle=ht3s-ht2ht3-ht2 Since the specific heat is constant, the equation deduces to ? fan=Tt3s-Tt2Tt3-Tt2 Simplifying the equation whenpt3s=pt3, Tt3sTt2=pt3pt2? -1? , ? fan=pt3pt2 and ? fan=Tt3Tt2 ? fan=? fan? -1? -1? fan-1 Bypass Ratio=msma where ms is the bypass flow rate and ma is the engine core flow rate.For the high pressure compressor, the equations remain the same as that of the fan except the changes in station numbering and the bypass ratio. 3. 4. 3. Combustion Chamber/ Burner The combustion chamber as the Brayton cycle implies is the only source of heat energy addition to the system. Accordingly, the combustion chamber causes very significant increase in the temperature of the air which results in the air gaining enormous internal energy. This energy gained is extracted to be used to power the turbine while the rest is used to create highly accelerated gases from the nozzle. There are three types of combustor namely; the can combustor, the annular combustor and the cannular combustor.The main considerations when designing a combustion chamber is to ensure that the combustion process is complete with no fuel waste, the combustor should have long life materials because any failure can lead to engine explosion. The other consideration is that the air must be heated enough above the ignition fuel temperature in order to ensure stoichiometric combustion. Equations of the Combustion Chamber In the real process of the combustor, total and static pressure drops and the temperature also drop. The major causes of pressure losses are the high level of irreversibility or non-isentropic process and viscous effects in the burner. The burner pressure ratio ? =pt5pt4Burner temperature ratio ? b=Tt5Tt4 Since no work is done only heat transfer, the efficiency of the burner is analysed using the heating value NCV of the fuel used. Thus, efficiency ? b=hea t addedHeating value of fuel=ma+mfht5-maht4NCVmf Given that f=mfma, ? b= 1+fht5- ht4NCVf Equivalence Ratio of combustion It is the ratio of the actual fuel to air ratio of the combustion process to the stoichiometric fuel to air ratio. This ratio produces a means of classifying the combustion process to show whether it is a lean, rich or stoichiometric combustion. The mathematical expression for this is as shown below ? =Actual FARStiochiometric FAR 1 Rich combustion process 3. 4. 4. Turbine Turbine can simply be said to be the antonym of a compressor. In response, a turbine extracts molecular kinetic energy from the air and uses it to drive the turbo machineries which results in the pressure and temperature of the air to drop. If truth be told, Flack (2005) asserted that the turbine uses 70% to 80% of the total energy gained by the air in the combustion chamber to drive the turbo machineries while the remaining 20% to 30% is used to generate thrust in the nozzle.Since the geometry of a turbine have favourable pressure gradient unlike the compressor which is adverse, the efficiency of the turbine is usually very high. Since the turbine is the opposite of the compressor, it has exactly the same configuration of rotor and stator but the volume increase across it which induces the pressure drop. One major problem faced when design a turbine is the deterioration of the blades due to high inlet temperature from the combustion chamber. Based on this, (Song et al. 2002) demonstrated that General Electric uses about 16. 8% of the compressor air to cool the turbine blades of GE 7f engine. Turbine Equation Analysis Given that, Turbine efficiency ? T=ActualIdeal=ht6-ht5ht6s-ht5 T=Tt6-Tt5Tt6s-Tt5 Simplifying the equation given that pt6s=pt6 Tt6sTt5=pt6pt5? -1? ?T=pt6pt5 ? T=Tt6Tt5 ?T=? T-1? T? -1? -1 3. 4. 5. Exhaust Nozzle The nozzle is the final component of the jet engine that the air passes through. The main purposes of the nozzle is to add extra acceleration to the h igh velocity exiting air, reduces its total pressure to that of ambient condition and finally generate sufficient thrust. There are two conditions that occur in the exit of the nozzle depending on the ambient pressure. The first condition is termed under-expansion which occurs when the ambient pressure is less than the exit pressure of the gases.The result of this is that the exit velocity will be lower than it normally is and this makes the momentum component of thrust to be lower than ideal. On the other hand, it will create a positive thrust component for the pressure terms. The second case termed as overexpansion which occurs when the ambient pressure is greater than the exit pressure of the gases. Consequentially, the opposite of what happens in the under-expansion condition occurs where the pressure term is lower and the momentum is higher. Nozzle efficiency ? n=ActualIdeal=ht8-h9ht8-h9s=Tt8-T9Tt8-T9s for constant specific heat Using the steady state energy equation and balanc ing it out, U9=2ht8-h9 . When specific heat is constant U9=2cpTt8-T9 p9pt8=T9sTt8? -1? T9Tt8=11+? -12M92 p9pt8=11+? -12M92-1+ ? n ? n 3. 4.Thermodynamic Process and Cycle of Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Before any explanation is done from Figure 2, the blue arrows represent the incoming air into the diffuser and the red represent the air flow into the core of the engine while the black arrow represent the bypass air flow through the fan. Finally, the brown arrow represents the air flow after the bypass air and the core air flow have mixed. Based on the arrangement of the turbofan engine in figure 2, it can be seen that air at ambient condition is sucked into the diffuser where the air velocity is reduced and some of its kinetic energy is used to increase the static pressure to the total pressure. The air exiting the diffuser enters the fan or low pressure compressor where it is compressed. Indeed, the molecules of the air gains kinetic and internal energy by colliding rapid ly with one another and as a result increase the enthalpy and static pressure.Also, in the fan, some of the compressed air is bypassed through a duct to be used for the mixing process later while the rest of the air enters into the high pressure compressor of the engine core. In the high pressure compressor, the air is further compressed where the enthalpy and pressure increases as it is released into the combustion chamber. Also, in the high pressure compressor, some of the air mass flow rate is bled out to be used to cool the turbine blades and for air conditioning in the aircraft. In the combustion chamber, the incoming fuel reacts with the air in an oxidation process at constant pressure where the by-product gases gain molecular kinetic energy thereby increasing the enthalpy.This high temperature gases escapes into the high pressure turbine where it is expanded and the gases lose some of their kinetic molecular energy as it enthalpy and static pressure reduces. In other words, i t can be said that the molecular kinetic energy of the gases is being converted to mechanical work which is used to power the high pressure spool. Consequently, the gases enters into the low pressure turbine where it is further expanded to a lower pressure and enthalpy as their molecular kinetic energy is converted to mechanical work to power the low pressure spool. These gases escaping from the low pressure turbine enters the mixing zone or mixer after it has lost most of its total enthalpy and mixes with the bypassed cold air from the duct to further reduce its enthalpy as that of the cold air increases.In other words, the cold air absorbs some of the heat energy from the hot gases until they both attain equilibrium enthalpy. The mixture of the cold air and hot gases both escape at the same equilibrium enthalpy and pressure through the nozzle where their velocity is increased and the pressure is reduced considerably to that of the ambient condition. Furthermore, the exhausted high velocity gases is used to produced thrust for propulsion according to Newton’s third law of motion (In every action, there is equal and opposite reaction). 2 4. 5 6 4 13 0 HPC DIFFUSER FAN/LPC HPT LPT NOZZLE COMBUSTION CHAMBER 2. 5 3 5 8 16 BYPASS DUCT HP Spool LP Spool MIXING ZONEFigure 2 Layout of a Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine P0 P3 P4. 5 P5 P8 P6 P2. 5 P2 P13 P4 ENTROPY (S)(kJ/kg) TEMPERATURE (K) Figure 3 T-S Diagrams for the Forward Fan Twin Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine Chapter 4 Mathematical and Gas Turb 11 Modelling of the Engine 4. 1. Station Numbering and Assumptions Station numbering is a very crucial step that has to be taken when analysis of any thermodynamic system involving many processes is to be done. Moreover, station numbering contributes immensely to showing how the properties of one process relate to another and how the interaction between these processes derives the functional relationship of the thermodynamic system.Returning to the work in hand, the station numbering system that has been adopted for this work on a JT8D-15A turbofan engine is in accordance with the Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) and it is shown in figure 2. Assumptions The following assumption were made based on Mattingly (2002) and Kurzke (2007) in order to perform the modelling as listed below * The air flow through the engine is assumed to be steady and one dimensional * The fan and the low pressure Compressor are driven by the low pressure turbine * The overall engine is assumed to have no bleeds in mass flow or power off-take in turbine. * The nozzle of the engine is choked which means the exit pressure will be greater than the ambient pressure. The air is assumed to act as a half ideal gas where the specific heat and ratio is dependent on temperature only. * The areas of each station of the engine is assumed to be constant 4. 2. Design Point Cycle Analysis of the Turbofan Engine The off-design or performance cycle analysis cann ot be done without the design point cycle being defined. The design point cycle in this analysis is obtained using exactly the same data used in the actual test analysis for a JT8D-15A turbofan engine operating at sea level with maximum take-off thrust as shown in (â€Å"JT8D Typical Temperature and Pressure†) and (â€Å"ICAO†). Some of the input parameters such as the isentropic efficiencies and pressure ratios from the actual test data had to be calculated.Since not all the input parameters were given from the actual test data, some of the parameters like inlet corrected mass flow rate, diffuser pressure ratio and efficiency; mechanical spool efficiency had to be guessed in order to complete the analysis and the data are represented below in Table 1. With all the Input Parameter being specified as shown in table 1, the design point cycle simulation of the JT8D-15A turbofan Engine using the Gas Turb 11 software can then be performed. All the steps taken to model the m ixed flow turbofan engine on Gas Turb 11 is clearly represented in the algorithm shown in figure 3 below. COMPONENT| INPUT PARAMETER| | DIFFUSER| Pressure Ratio (? d)| 1| | Inlet Corrected Mass Flow Rate (mc2)| 138. 618 kg/s| FAN| Pressure Ratio (? fan)| 2. 054| | Isentropic Efficiency (? fan)| 0. 78| | Bypass Ratio (? )| 1. 08| Low Pressure Compressor (LPC)| Pressure Ratio (? LPC)| 4. 7| | Isentropic Efficiency (? LPC)| 0. 88| | Nominal Low Pressure Shaft Speed (NLP)| 8160RPM| High Pressure Compressor (HPC)| Pressure Ratio (? HPC)| 3. 77| | Isentropic Efficiency (? HPC)| 0. 864| | Nominal Low Pressure Shaft Speed (NHP)| 11420RPM| Combustion Chamber (cc)| Pressure Ratio (? CC)| 0. 934| | Isentropic Efficiency (? CC)| 0. 99| | Burner Exit Temperature (TIT)| 1277. 15K| High Pressure Turbine (HPT)| Isentropic Efficiency (? HPT)| 0. 9| | HP Spool Mechanical efficiency (? m)| 1| Low Pressure Turbine (LPT)| Isentropic Efficiency (? LPT)| 0. 91| | LP Spool Mechanical efficiency (? m)| 1| T able 1 Input Parameters for the Design Point Cycle Simulation STARTSpecify all the input data gotten from the actual test data as shown in Table 1 Run the Gasturb 11 software and select mixed flow turbofan from the drag down Tab list. Set the scope to ‘More’, set the Calculation Mode as Design and click ‘Run’ Choose the Units to either Imperial or SI and Select the type of fuel from to drop down list to Kerosene, Natural Gas or Hydrogen Estimate the inlet Corrected mc2 Mass Flow rate to the FAN/LPC Choose ‘Single Cycle’ for ‘Select a Task ‘Option and click ‘Run’ Check if the Thrust, SFC, ? HPT, ? LPT and EPR are within (0-10) % of the actual test Experiment END YES NO Figure 4 Design Point Cycle Simulation Algorithm Using Gas Turb 11 Verification of the Design Point simulation ResultsSince not all the input parameters were specified in the actual test data and some of them had to be guessed, it is without any doubt that errors are bound to generate in the simulation results using the Gas Turb 11 software. In order to ensure that the errors accumulated in the simulation were within range, the major output parameters obtained such as net thrust, fuel flow rate, Engine exit pressure ratio, etc were compared to the actual test data as shown in Table 2 and the error range was calculated to be between 0. 25% to 8. 5% which is within an acceptable range. PARAMETERS| ACTUAL TEST DATA| SIMULATED DATA USING GASTURB 11| Net Thrust| 69307. 74| 69320| Engine Exit Pressure Ratio P8P0| 2. 09| 2. 167|Burner Fuel Flow| 1. 100843| 1. 09781| HPT pressure Ratio (? HPT)| 0. 415| 0. 449| LPT Pressure Ratio (? LPT)| 0. 3294| 0. 3514| HPT temperature Ratio (? HPT)| 0. 8097| 0. 8435| LPT temperature Ratio (? LPT)| 0. 7718| 0. 793| Table 2 Comparison Table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Data Using GasTurb 11 4. 3. Off-Design Point Cycle Simulation of the Turbofan Engine The off-design or performance cycle simulatio n takes into account the concept of module matching of each component through performance maps. This cycle analysis enables the determination of different operating point of the engine at a given design point of the engine.Considering the work in hand, the design point have been defined and verified for the JT8D-15A turbofan engine operating at sea level with maximum take-off thrust which means that different operating points of the engine can be defined with the concept of off-design module matching of the engine. Indeed, the off-design operating point that was considered for the parametric analysis in this work was 30,000ft at M0 0. 8 for the turbofan engine. The off-design modelling of the JT8D-15A engine for the operating point of 30,000ft at M0 0. 8 based on the reference design point defined earlier is clearly demonstrated as follows. The off-design performance cycle simulation may contain some errors because of the component performance maps that were used for the simulation. 4. 3. 1. Module/Component Matching This process only applies to the off-design performance cycle point of the engine.It can simply be defined as the act of synchronising each component of a jet engine to coexist as a unit in order to derive the overall performance characteristics of the jet engine. Component matching involves the process closely studying the ramifications of the actual jet engine overall performance behaviour on the components major characteristics such as pressure ratio, temperature ratio, efficiency and spool speed. This process introduces the concept of empirically determined component performance maps that establishes the relationship between the thermodynamic properties and the geometry of the jet engine itself. 4. 3. 2. Off-Design Component Modelling Diffuser The diffuser was assumed to be adiabatic and the pressure ratio ? d=1 The Isentropic Efficiency was assumed to be 1 For Sea Level,Pamb=101325pa , Tamb=288. 15K For 30,000ft and M0 0. 8, Tamb=288. 15-0. 0 065? 9144 =288. 15-59. 436 =228. 71K Pamb=101325? Tamb288. 155. 2561 =30. 09kpa Tt1=228. 71? 1+? -12M02 =228. 71? 1+1. 4-12? 0. 82 =258K pt1p0=1+ ? d? -12M02 -1 pt1=30. 09? 1+ 1? 1. 4-120. 821. 41. 4-1 pt1=45. 8674kPa pt1=pt2 Tt1=Tt2 Fan and Low Pressure Compressor The inlet corrected mass flow rate is estimated as 138. 618kg/s , As for the off design simulation using the component performance maps for the altitude of 30000ft and Mach no. 0. 8, the actual spool speeds and inlet mass flow rate are calculated based on the estimated inlet corrected mass flow rate as shown below.Low and High pressure spool mechanical efficiency is assumed to be=1 HP spool Speed=11420RPM, LP spool Speed=8160RPM m2=Pt2PSTD? mc2Tt2TSTD =45. 878101. 325? 138. 618258288. 15 Actual Mass flow rate m2=66. 3323kg/s N=Tt2TSTD? NcLP=228. 71288. 15? 8160=7722 RPM The calculated actual mass flow rate and spool speed were used to evaluation the isentropic efficiency and the pressure ratio of the LPC for that operatin g condition from the compressor performance map. Figure 5 Example of a Compressor Performance Map/Curve The diagram above in figure 4 depicts a typical compressor performance map that was used for the off-design point analysis in this work.It can be seen that the x-axis represents the inlet corrected mass flow rate mc2 into the compressor, the y-axis represents the compressor pressure, the red contour lines represents the isentropic efficiencies and the black curved lines represent the relative corrected spool speed. To add to that, the red dash line that ends the speed lines and efficiency lines represent the surge margin which is also known as the stall line that must be avoided since the flow will become unstable in that region. In this work, the inlet corrected mass flow rate and spool speed were calculated which were interpolated on the performance map to obtain the pressure ratio and the isentropic efficiency.For instance, the yellow dot on the map represents a design point tr aced for a given pressure ratio, High Pressure Compressor The inlet corrected mass flow rate into the HPC mc2. 5=mc21+? mc2. 5=138. 6182. 08=66. 64kgs m2. 5=Pt2. 5PSTD? mc2. 5Tt2. 5TSTD N=Tt2. 5TSTD? NcHP The same equation used for the LPC is used to calculate the actual mass flow rate and spool speed which is used to evaluate the isentropic efficiency and pressure ratio when it is operating at an altitude of 30000ft at M0 =0. 8. Verification of the off-design modelling for 30000ft at Mo 0. 8 In order to verify the simulation result gotten for the operational design point of 30000ft at M0 0. , the actual test data results gotten from Mattingly, Heiser and Pratt (2002) for the same operating condition was compared. Due to the difficulties in obtaining a lot of output parameters for this operating point, the result will be verified with only the net thrust generated and the specific fuel consumption. Indeed, the error accumulated was 1. 71% for the net thrust and 0. 83% for the specif ic fuel consumption. PARAMETERS| ACTUAL TEST DATA| SIMULATED DATA USING GASTURB 11| Net Thrust (lb)| 4920| 4836| Specific Fuel Consumption(lb/lbh)| 0. 779| 0. 7855| Table 3 Comparison Table for the Actual Test Data and Simulated Off-design Data Using GasTurb 11 Chapter 5Methodology, Results and Discussions Given that the design point of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine at sea level has been obtained and verified with the actual test data, the operating point of 30000ft at M0 0. 8 was simulated and obtained which now served as the design point for the analysis in this work. Moreover, the procedure taken to define this design point of 30000ft at M0 0. 8 of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine has been clearly stated earlier which gives the permission to conduct the parametric cycle study of the turbofan engine. The parametric cycle studies were done for three different cases for the operational design point of 30000ft at M0 0. of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine as explained as follows. 1. The first parametric analysis case 1 aim to create an understanding of the effects of varying major design parameters on the performance parameters of the turbofan engine when some of the design choices are kept constant. In other words, the bypass ratio and thermal limit parameter (turbine inlet temperature) were varied when the design choices such as the compressor pressure ratio, fan pressure ratio and isentropic efficiencies were kept constant in order to investigate their effects on the performance parameters such as the net thrust, specific fuel consumption, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency, and fuel-air-ratio.Much interest is shown nowadays in using alternative fuels like hydrogen and Natural gas in efforts to reduce the cancer known as pollution and the risk of depletion of energy resources. Based on this, conducting a research that focuses of comparing different fuels consumption rate, their risk of pollution and their contribution to the performance of the engine will be re ally valuable. Based on this, a parametric analysis had to be done on the JT8D-15A turbofan engine using three different fuels which are the design point fuel kerosene, hydrogen and natural gas. Since the original design point of the JT8D-15A turbofan was obtained using kerosene fuel, the design points of using hydrogen and natural gas was obtained using the same design choices as that of kerosene.Now that the design points of the JT8D-15A turbofan engine had been defined when using the three different fuels, it had given a go ahead to perform whatever parametric cycle studies of the turbofan engine using the three fuels. In order to compare the performance characteristics of the turbofan engine when it is using the three different fuels, different approaches had to be devised to compare them effectively on a rational basis which defines the last two parametric analysis cases as follows. 2. The second case of parametric analysis was that the fuel flow rate would be kept constant for the three fuels that would be used as the bypass ratio is varied with design choices remaining the same. 3.The third case of study was to make the energy supply into the combustion chamber of the turbofan engine the sa